Mosquito and blackfly control with Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and Lysinibacillus sphaericus larvicides, source reduction, and plant-based repellents — instead of organophosphate larvicides and pyrethroid space fogging
Temephos and other organophosphate larvicides (fenthion, chlorpyrifos, malathion), pyrethroid/OP ULV fogging (deltamethrin, cypermethrin, malathion) in towns and wetlands; DEET (partly, personal protection)
Wetlands, floodplains, rice fields, urban containers, rivers (blackflies); municipalities and public health
Suppliers 1
| Bio-Medica Laboratories Ltd | Kenya | active |
Route into Russia / EAEU BIOCIDE
- Regulator
- Rospotrebnadzor / Rosselkhoznadzor (veterinary)
- Typical time
- SGR within 30 calendar days (non-veterinary); up to 130 working days for veterinary disinfectants/insecticides
- Legal basis
- CU Commission Decision No. 299 (28.05.2010) for SGR; EEC Council Decision No. 150 (12.12.2023) for veterinary disinfection, disinsection and acaricide agents
Information, not legal advice — confirm the procedure for your product.
Proof 12 claims
Chemical larviciding with organophosphates (e.g., temephos) and adult fogging with pyrethroids or organophosphates (thermal fogging / ULV misting).
Bio-based larviciding with Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti; e.g., VectoBac WG / granular formulations), integrated into routine vector control (with reduced reliance on OP/pyrethroid measures for larvae).
- Displaced at scale?
- unclear
- Caveats
- The provided sources do not contain quantitative evidence of large-scale displacement of OP/pyrethroid fogging or temephos larviciding by Bti in Russian cities or floodplains, nor do they provide national market-share/time-series or volume replacement figures. The Malaysia case shows Bti adoption integrated alongside ongoing pyrethroid/OP adulticiding rather than complete displacement.
- Hand review
- D2 Programme level (West Africa OCP): Bti use rose from 7,990 L (1981) to 651,000–750,000 L a year (1987–88), in rotation with temephos after resistance (peer-reviewed).
- checked
- 2026-10-06
| In an operational dengue control program in Malaysia (Sibu district), wide-area Bti spray was integrated into routine control in 2016 after 2015 pilot data, while adulticiding using pyrethroids/organophosphates continued; this shows Bti adoption within real program practice rather than a measured full displacement of OP/pyrethroid fogging. “So, in 2016 in site Z-7L when dengue cases resurfaced and the numbers continued to escalate despite the intensive adulticiding once every 3 days from EW 9, the wide area Bti spray application was integrated into the routine vector control program from EW 27/2016.” Malaysia (Sibu township, Sarawak) · 2015–2016 · minority but measured share or volume | peer-reviewed journals.plos.org |
| In the same Malaysia program example, after initiating Bti in 2015 (Z7-L), incidence rate was reduced 51-fold four weeks later, with only one single case in 25 weeks; in 2016, when Bti was integrated despite intensive adulticiding, incidence rate declined 6-fold and had no cases in weeks EW 39–52. “In 2015, four weeks after initiating the Bti treatment, a 51 fold reduction in the IR per 100,000 population was observed, with only one single case in 25 weeks (EW 29–52).” Malaysia (Sibu township, Sarawak; zone 7, site Z7-L) · 2015 (4 weeks after initiating Bti; EW 29–52) and 2016 (EW 27/2016 onward; EW 39–52) · not applicable | peer-reviewed journals.plos.org |
| In 2016, after Bti was integrated into routine control in Z7-L, dengue incidence rate declined 6-fold and no cases were reported for 11 weeks. “Then the dengue case numbers declined evidently with 6 folds reduction in the IR per 100,000 population. No cases were reported within the 11 weeks between EW 39–52.” Malaysia (Sibu township, Sarawak; zone 7, site Z7-L) · 2016 (EW 39–52) · not applicable | peer-reviewed ✓ journals.plos.org |
| In a multi-year operational quality dataset in Italy (catch basins in public areas), overall the Bti+Bs program had lower proportions of catch basins positive for mosquito larvae than the figures reported for DFB at specified inspection days, and the paper reports quantitative positive catch basin percentages over time since treatment. “Overall, 10% of Bti + Bs-treated catch basins with water were positive for mosquito L3, L4 or P, with a higher percentage in 2020 than in the other years (14.2%, χ2 =259.56, P < 0.001) (Table 1).” Italy (Veneto region; catch basins) · 2020–2021 (multi-year operational QC dataset; with context that no data for 2019) · not applicable | peer-reviewed pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
| In the Upper Rhine Valley, Germany, Bti formulations have been used solely against floodwater mosquitoes since 1981, replacing previous methods like lecithin surface layers. “Since 1981 formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) were solely used against floodwater mosquitoes.” Germany · 1981-2016 · large measured reduction of the old process | peer-reviewed exa.ai |
| In Brazil, Bti has been used as a substitute for temephos in some localities since 2001 to manage resistance. “Since 2001, the resistance was managed by replacing temephos with Bti in some localities [18].” Brazil · 2001-2016 · minority but measured share or volume | peer-reviewed journals.plos.org |
| Global use of Bti for dengue control was reported at 70–300 metric tons of formulated product per year. “Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis was reported mainly for dengue control, with a global use of 70–300 metric tons of formulated product per year.” global · 2011 · | peer-reviewed ✓ pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |
| Bti is used universally in the dry season within the Onchocerciasis Control Programme. “Resistance to chemical insecticides is now very widespread, and B.t.i. is used universally in the dry season.” West Africa · 1989 · minority but measured share or volume | peer-reviewed ij-entomology.online |
| Bti is effective against blackfly populations that have developed resistance to temephos. “B.t.i. has the advantages of being effective against populations resistant to temephos, and of being very selective.” · · | peer-reviewed ij-entomology.online |
| Early Bti formulations were prohibitively expensive at high river discharges compared to chemical larvicides, but costs were reduced through manufacturer competition and improved formulations. “It could only be used economically at discharges of 25 m3/sec and below. In the absence of other products, it was used at discharges of several hundred cubic meters per second, but at very great increases in cost (3-4 X) including using large helicopters costing $1000/hr tooperate. Since that time, active collaboration …” · · | peer-reviewed ij-entomology.online |
| The primary drivers for switching to Bti were the development of resistance to chemical larvicides like temephos and the need for an environmentally selective product. “B.t.i. has the advantages of being effective against populations resistant to temephos, and of being very selective.” · · | peer-reviewed ij-entomology.online |
| The Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) used Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) as a larvicide, with annual usage volumes recorded in litres from 1981 to 1988. “Table 3 Use of larvicides by OCP (lilies) 1975-1987 ... B.t.i. ... 1981 7,990 ... 1982 232,986 ... 1983 303,290 ... 1984 256,860 ... 1985 198,944 ... 1986 381,230 ... 1987 651,000 ... 1988 750,000” West Africa · 1981-1988 · large measured reduction of the old process | peer-reviewed ✓ ij-entomology.online |
References 4
- Becker N (1997). Microbial control of mosquitoes: management of the Upper Rhine mosquito population as a model programme. *Parasitology Today* 13: 485–487. VERIFIED DOI · cited by 90
- Lacey LA (2007). *Bacillus thuringiensis* serovariety *israelensis* and *Bacillus sphaericus* for mosquito control. *Journal of the American Mosquito Control As VERIFIED DOI · cited by 197
- Wirth MC, Georghiou GP, Federici BA (1997). CytA enables CryIV endotoxins of *Bacillus thuringiensis* to overcome high levels of CryIV resistance in the mosquit VERIFIED DOI · cited by 159
- Boyce R, Lenhart A, Kroeger A, Velayudhan R, Roberts B, Horstick O (2013). *Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis* (Bti) for the control of dengue vectors: systema VERIFIED DOI · cited by 120
Details
Replaces: organophosphate larvicides and routine insecticide fogging · Scope: public health and wetlands · Evidence: high
The chemical problem#
Municipal mosquito control in many countries, including Russian cities and southern floodplains (the Volga delta, Kuban, Rostov), relies on fogging with pyrethroids or organophosphates and on OP larvicides. Fogging kills pollinators and non-target insects, drifts into homes, and has limited effect on mosquitoes, which are often resistant. Temephos in water harms aquatic invertebrates, and resistance to it is common in Aedes aegypti.
Product overview#
Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) produces crystal toxins that kill only the larvae of mosquitoes, blackflies and some midges. It has been used for more than 40 years:
- Upper Rhine (Germany), KABS program since 1976: Bti treats about 300 km of the Rhine floodplain. It is the model of large-scale biological mosquito control, with nuisance mosquitoes reduced by more than 90 % and wetlands protected.
- West Africa Onchocerciasis Control Programme: Bti against blackflies (river blindness vectors) in rivers where OP resistance developed.
- Lysinibacillus sphaericus (formerly Bacillus sphaericus): longer residual effect in polluted water against Culex and Anopheles.
- Source reduction: emptying containers, managing drainage, and water-level management in rice fields.
- Personal protection: PMD (from lemon-eucalyptus oil), recommended by the US CDC as a repellent alongside DEET and picaridin.
Active ingredient / Composition#
Bti spores and crystals (Cry4Aa, Cry4Ba, Cry11Aa, Cyt1Aa toxins) in water-dispersible granules, liquids, corn-cob granules or ice granules. L. sphaericus binary toxin (BinA/BinB).
Key facts#
| Parameter | Value |
|---|---|
| Class | Bacterial larvicide |
| Group code | IRAC 11A (Bti), 11B (L. sphaericus) |
| Target | Mosquito, blackfly and some chironomid larvae only |
| Resistance | None reported in the field for Bti (four synergistic toxins, including Cyt1A) |
| Non-target effect | No effect on fish, amphibians, birds, mammals, bees or most aquatic invertebrates at label rates |
| Application | Ground sprayers, backpacks, drones, helicopters (floodplains) |
Advantages#
- Highly selective, so wetland food webs (birds, frogs, dragonflies) are protected.
- Kills larvae before they become biting adults; much more efficient than fogging.
- No resistance after decades of use (the Cyt toxin synergy).
- Can be produced by fermentation, including in Russia.
Mode of action#
Larvae ingest the crystals. The alkaline gut activates Cry and Cyt toxins, which form pores in midgut cells, and the larvae die within hours. Cyt1A acts as a receptor for the Cry toxins, which prevents resistance development.
Application#
| Habitat | Target | Measure | Specifics |
|---|---|---|---|
| Floodplains, flooded meadows | Aedes vexans and floodwater mosquitoes | Bti granules or liquid by helicopter or drone after flooding | Treat within days of flooding (larval stages L1–L3); larval monitoring with dippers |
| Urban containers, drains, basements | Culex pipiens, Aedes albopictus | Bti/L. sphaericus tablets or granules; source reduction campaigns | Aedes albopictus has spread to the Russian Black Sea coast, so container management is key |
| Rivers | Blackflies (Simulium) | Bti liquid dosing into rivers | Standard in blackfly control |
| Rice fields | Anopheles, Culex | Bti; intermittent irrigation; fish (e.g. native larvivorous fish) | – |
| Personal protection | Bites | PMD/lemon-eucalyptus repellents, window screens | – |
Limitations#
- Short residual (days to weeks); needs repeated treatment and monitoring.
- In disease epidemics (e.g. West Nile, dengue), targeted adulticide use may still be required; see E02 for Wolbachia.
- Some sensitive chironomid (midge) species can be affected at high doses, so use label doses.
Evidence of displacement — D2: measurable displacement (minority share)#
Assessment (hand-reviewed): Programme level (West Africa OCP): Bti use rose from 7,990 L (1981) to 651,000–750,000 L a year (1987–88), in rotation with temephos after resistance (peer-reviewed).
Figures found (verified as quoted, but the assessment above explains why they do not count as displacement evidence for this substitution):
- displacement — The Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) used Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) as a larvicide, with annual usage volumes recorded in litres from 1981 to 1988. (West Africa, 1981-1988; peer-reviewed: ij-entomology.online)
- performance — In 2016, after Bti was integrated into routine control in Z7-L, dengue incidence rate declined 6-fold and no cases were reported for 11 weeks. (Malaysia (Sibu township, Sarawak; zone 7, site Z7-L), 2016 (EW 39–52); peer-reviewed: journals.plos.org)
- performance — Global use of Bti for dengue control was reported at 70–300 metric tons of formulated product per year. (global, 2011; peer-reviewed: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov)
Suppliers — real products and services (from the vendor index)#
Companies below are active vendors in the vendor index whose own card (profile / official website) shows this product or service — matched 2026-09-28 by keyword and checked by hand against the card text. Being listed is not an endorsement; open each card for evidence, contacts and status.
| Company | Region · Country | What the index shows | Card |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bio-Medica Laboratories Ltd | Africa/ME · Kenya | bio-larvicides for mosquito control | card |
Government funding signals#
Public grants for a specific technology are a leading indicator: governments fund what regulators want to replace and what is close to practical adoption. Searched on 2026-09-27 in: EU CORDIS (FP7, Horizon 2020, Horizon Europe), US federal awards (USAspending: USDA NIFA/ARS/APHIS/Forest Service, EPA, DOE, NOAA, USAID; plus NSF and NIH), UK UKRI Gateway to Research, Australian Research Council. Each grant below was reviewed by hand for relevance. China, Brazil and India are covered in the subsection below (publication-acknowledged grants). Not covered: Russia (RSF, FASIE — not reachable from the research environment) and national agencies outside these databases. Amounts are the funder’s contribution as recorded (US NIH/UKRI: per award or fiscal year).
Signal: Strong. 3 relevant grant(s) · about €24.5M in total · jurisdictions: EU.
| Funder / programme | Project | Lead organisation | Start | Amount | Link |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| European Commission — FP7 CP-IP-SICA | AVECNET: African Vector Control: New Tools | Liverpool School Of Tropical Medicine (UK) | 2011 | 11,999,989 EUR | link |
| European Commission — H2020 RIA | INFRAVEC2: Research Infrastructures for the control of vector-borne diseases | Institut Pasteur (FR) | 2017 | 9,998,845 EUR | link |
| European Commission — HORIZON HORIZON-EIC-ACC-BF | SemioMVC: Mosquito-specific phagostimulants and pheromones for environment-friendly mosquito vector control | Molecular Attraction Ab (SE) | 2023 | 2,500,000 EUR | link |
China, Brazil, India — national research grants acknowledged in publications#
Chinese, Brazilian and Indian funders have no open grant databases reachable here, so this measures scientific papers published since 2015 that acknowledge national government grants, taken from the grant numbers publishers deposit with Crossref. Only papers whose title contains this article’s key terms are counted (a conservative lower bound; “100+” = search window full). It shows research-funding intensity, not budgets. Funders: China — NSFC, National Key R&D Program, China Agriculture Research System; Brazil — CNPq, CAPES, FAPESP, Embrapa, FAPEMIG; India — DBT, DST, ICAR, SERB, CSIR, BIRAC. Rating per country: Strong ≥50 papers · Moderate 10–49 · Weak 1–9.
| Country | Papers funded (2015–2026) | Signal | Main funders (grant acknowledgements) | Example grant → funded paper |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| China | 1 | Weak | NSFC (2) | NSFC 31830087 → A long‐lasting biological larvicide against the dengue vector mosquito Aedes albopictus (2020) doi |
| Brazil | 3 | Weak | CNPq (4), CAPES (2) | CAPES financing 001 → New formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis for the control of Culex quinquefasciatus Say, 1823… (2024) doi |
| India | 0 | None | – | – |
Scientific evidence#
- Becker N (1997). Microbial control of mosquitoes: management of the Upper Rhine mosquito population as a model programme. Parasitology Today 13: 485–487.
- Lacey LA (2007). Bacillus thuringiensis serovariety israelensis and Bacillus sphaericus for mosquito control. Journal of the American Mosquito Control Association 23 (Suppl. 2): 133–163.
- Wirth MC, Georghiou GP, Federici BA (1997). CytA enables CryIV endotoxins of Bacillus thuringiensis to overcome high levels of CryIV resistance in the mosquito, Culex quinquefasciatus. PNAS 94: 10536–10540.
- Boyce R, Lenhart A, Kroeger A, Velayudhan R, Roberts B, Horstick O (2013). Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) for the control of dengue vectors: systematic literature review. Tropical Medicine & International Health 18: 564–577.
Bioeconomy value#
A fermentation-produced bacterium replaces neurotoxic sprays over whole landscapes. It protects wetland biodiversity and pollinators and creates local biotech production.